Transgenic mice having a human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) phenotype, experimental uses and applications

ABSTRACT

The present invention-relates to transgenic mice and isolated transgenic mouse cells, the mice and mouse cells comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene. In embodiments, the transgenic mouse or mouse cells are deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. In embodiments, the transgenic mouse or mouse cell has the genotype HLA-A2 + HLA-DR1 + β2m°IAβ°. The invention also relates to methods of using a transgenic mouse of the invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is based on and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/490,945, filed Jul. 30, 2003 (Attorney Docket No. 03495.6093), the entire disclosure of which is relied upon and incorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Many vaccines are currently being developed for human cancer immunotherapy and for treatment of infectious diseases, such as malaria, AIDS, hepatitis C virus, and SARS. Given the rapidity with which new emerging pathogens can appear, it is important to improve animal models that could be used to evaluate vaccination strategies and the protective capacity of different epitopes quickly and reliably. Furthermore, in vivo studies are already required to assess crucial variables of vaccine behavior that are not easily evaluated or impossible to measure in vitro, such as vaccine immunogenicity, vaccine formulation, route of administration, tissue distribution, and involvement of primary and secondary lymphoid organs. Because of their simplicity and flexibility, small animals, such as mice represent an attractive alternative to more cumbersome and expensive model systems, such as nonhuman primates, at least for initial vaccine development studies.

The moderate efficacy observed in several clinical trials of vaccines, which were found to be protective in wild-type animal studies (McMichael, A. J. & Hanke, T. Nat Med 9, 874-880 (2003)), may be partly explained by the different influence that human and animal MHC have on the outcome of the immune response, since animal MHC and human HLA molecules do not present the same optimal epitopes (Rotzschke, O. et al. Nature 348, 252-254 (1990)). Thus, despite some limitations, transgenic mice expressing human HLA should represent a useful improvement over wild-type mice as a preclinical model for testing vaccine candidates, evaluating the potential risk that the vaccines could induce autoimmune disorders, and devising better therapeutic strategies based on the human restriction element.

Cytotoxic T Cells

Cytotoxic T cells (CTL) play a crucial role in the eradication of infectious diseases and in some cases, cancer (P. Aichele, H. Hengartner, R. M. Zinkemagel and M. Schulz, J Exp Med 171 (1990), p. 1815; L. BenMohamed, H. Gras-Masse, A. Tartar, P. Daubersies, K Brahimi, M. Bossus, A. Thomas and P. Druhile, Eur J Immunol 27 (1997), p. 1242; D. J. Diamond, J. York, J. Sun, C. L. Wright and S. J. Forman, Blood 90 (1997), p. 1751). Recombinant protein vaccines do not reliably induce CTL responses (Habeshaw J A, Dalgleish A G, Bountiff L, Newell A L, Wilks, D, Walker L C, Manca F. 1990 November; 11(11): 418-25; Miller S B, Tse H, Rosenspire A J, King S R. Virology. 1992 December; 191 (2):9 73-7). The use of otherwise immunogenic vaccines consisting of attenuated pathogens in humans is hampered, in several important diseases, by overriding safety concerns. In the last few years, epitope-based approaches have been proposed as a possible strategy to develop novel prophylactic and immunotherapeutic vaccines (Melief C J, Offringa R, Toes R E, Kast W M. Curr Opin Immunol. 1996 October, 8(5):651-7; Chesnut R W, Design testing of peptide based cytotoxic T-cell mediated immunotherapeutic to treat infection disease, cancer, in Powell, M F, Newman, M J (eds.): Vaccine Design: The Subunit, Adjuvant Approach, Plenum Press, New-York 1995, 847). This approach offers several advantages, including selection of naturally, processed epitopes, which forces the immune system to focus on highly conserved and immunodominant epitopes of a pathogen (R. G. van der Most, A. Sette, C. Oseroff, J. Alexander, K. Murali-Krishna, L. L. Lau, S, Southwood, J. Sidney, R. W. Chesnut, M. Matioubian and R. Ahmed, J Immunol 157 (1996), p. 5543) and induction of multiepitopic responses to prevent escape by mutation such observed in HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. It also allows the elimination of suppressive T cell determinants, which might preferably elicit a TH2 response, in conditions where a TH1 responses is desirable, or vice-versa (Pfeiffer C, Murray J, Madri J, Bottomly K. Immunol Rev. 1991 October; 123:65-84; P Chaturvedi, Q Yu, S Southwood, A Sette, and B Singh Int Immunol 1996 8: 745-755). It finally provides the possibility to get rid of autoimmune T cell determinants in antigens, which might induce undesirable autoimmune diseases. Protective antiviral or anti-tumoral immunity using CTL epitope-peptides has been achieved in several experimental models (D. J. Diamond, J. York, J. Sun, C. L. Wright and S. J. Forman, Blood 90 1997, p. 1751; J. E. J. Blaney, E. Nobusawa, M. A. Brehm, R. H. Bonneau, L. M. Mylin, T. M. Fu, Y. Kawaoka and S. S. Tevethia, J Virol 72 (1998), p. 9567).

CTL epitope definition based on the usage of human lymphocytes might be misleading due to environmental and genetic heterogeneity that lead to incomplete results, and due to technical difficulties in isolating CTL clones. HLA class I or class II transgenic mice described to date have proved to be a valuable tool to overcome these limitations as illustrated by the identification with such animal models of novel CTL and T helper epitopes (Hill A V. Annu Rev Immunol. 1998; 16:593-617; Carmon L, El-Shami K M, Paz A., Pascolo S, Tzehoval E, Tirosb B, Koren R, Feldman M, Fridkin M, Lemonnier F A, Eisenbach L. Int J Cancer, 2000 Feb. 1; 85(3):391-7). These mice have also been used to demonstrate: i) good correlation between peptide HLA binding affinity and immunogenicity (Lustgarten J, Theobald M, Labadie C, LaFace Q, Peterson P, Disis M L, Cheaver M A, Sherman L A. Hum Immunol. 1997 February; 52(2):109-18; Bakker A B, van der Burg S H, Huijbens R J, DRijfhout J W, Melief C J, Adema G J, Figdor C G. Int J. Cancer. 1997 Jan. 27; 70(3):302-9), ii) significant overlap between the murine and human CTL system at the level of antigen processing (same epitopes generated), and iii) comparable mobilization against most antigens of the CTL repertoires in HLA transgenic mice and humans (Wentworth, P. A., A. Vifiello, J. Sidney, E. Keogh, P, W. Chesnut, H. Grey, A. Sette. 1996. Eur. J. Immunol. 26:97; Alexander, J., C. Oserof, J. Sidney, P. Wentworth, E. Keogh, G. Hermanson, F. V. Chisari R. T, Kubo, H. M, Grey, A, Sette, 1997. J. Immunol. 159:4753).

To date, synthetic peptide-based CTL epitope vaccines have been developed as immunotherapeutics against a number of human diseases [18-20]. However, only moderate efficacy was observed in several clinical trials (21). This may be partly explained by the failure of these vaccines to induce sufficiently strong CTL responses. Indeed, recent reports suggest the need for CD4+ T-cell help to obtain maximum CTL response (A. J. Zajac, K. Murali-Krishna, J. N. Blattman and R. Ahmed, Curr Opin Immunol 10 (1998), p. 444; Firat H, Garcia-Pons F, Tourdot S, Pascolo S, Scardino A, Garcia Z, Michel M L, Jack R W, Jung 0, Kosmatopoulos K, Mateo L, Suhrbier A, Lemonnier F A, Langlade-Demoyen P Eur J Immunol 29, 3112, 1999).

CTL are critical components of protective immunity against viral infections, but the requirements for in vivo priming of CTL are not completely understood. It is now accepted that Th cells are usually essential for CTL priming with synthetic peptides. With respect to synthetic CTL epitopic peptides, several studies point to a mandatory need for Th lymphocyte stimulation to induce optimal CTL responses (C. Fayolle, E. Deriaud and C. Leclerc, J Immunol 147 (1991), p, 4069; C. Widmann, P. Romero, J. L. Maryanski, G. Corradin and D. Valmori, J Immunol Meth 155 (1992), p. 95; M. Shirai, C. D. Pendkton, J. Ahlers, T. Takeshita, M. Newman and J. A. Berzofsky, J Immunol 152 (1994), p. 549; J. P. Sauet, H. Gras-Masse, J. G. Guillet and E. Gomard, Int Immunol 8 (1996). p. 457). Several of these studies showed that activation of a CD8+ T cell requires simultaneous interaction of a CD4+ T helper cell and a CD8+ T cell with the same antigen-presenting cell presenting their cognate epitopes (Ridge J P, Di Rosa F, Matzinger P. Nature. 1998 Jun. 4; 3 93 (6684):474-8). The relevance of this three-cell interaction for priming of CTLs is confirmed by studies with viral epitopes, and animal models, since in vivo induction of CTLs was most efficient when CTL and Th epitopes were physically linked rather than administered as an unlinked mixture (Shirai M, Pendleton C D, Ahlers J, Takeshita T, Newman M, Berzohky J A. J. Immunol. 1994 Jan. 15; 152(2): 549-56; Oseroff C, Sette A, Wentworth P, Celis E, Maewal A, Dahlberg C, Fikes J, Kubo R T, Chesnut R W, Grey B X Alexander J. Vaccine. 1998 May; 16(8): 823-33). The capacity of CTL and Th antigenic peptides to efficiently induce CTL responses has been demonstrated both in experimental models (C. Fayolle, E. Deriaud and C. Leclerc, J Immunol 147 (1991), p, 4069; C. Widmann, P. Romero, J. L. Maryanski, G. Corradin and D. Valmori, J, Immunol Meth 155 (1992), p. 95) and in humans (A. Vitiello, G. Ishioka, H. M. Grey, R. Rose, P. Framess, R. LaFond, L. Yuan, F. V. Chisari, J. Furze and R. Bartholomeuz, J Clin Invest 95 (1995), p. 341; B. Livingston, C. Crimi, H. Grey, G. Ishioka, F. V. Chisari, J. Fikes, H. M. Grey, R. Chesnut and A. Sette, J Immunol 159 (1997), p. 1383). Moreover, a potent Th response plays an important role not only for optimal induction of CTL responses, but also for maintenance of CTL memory (E. A. Walter, P. D. Greenberg, M. J. Gilbert, R. J. Finch, K-S. Watanabe, E. D. Tbomas and S. R. Riddell, N Engl J Med 333 (1995), p. 1038; Riddell S R, Greenberg P D, In Thomas E D, Blume K G, Forrrian S J (eds): Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, 2nd edn. Malden, M A: Blackwell Science Inc., 1999). Finally, it has long been documented that CD4+ T “helper” cells are crucial in coordinating cellular and humoral immune responses against exogenous antigens.

Recently, a transgenic (Tg) mouse that expresses both HLA-A*0201 class I and HLA-DR1 class II molecules was established (BenMohamed L, Krishnan R, Longmate J, Auge C, Low L, Primus J, Diamond D J, Hum, Immunol. 2000 August; 61(8):764-79). The authors reported that both HLA-A*0201 and HLA-DR1 transgenes are functional in vivo, that both MHC class I and class II molecules were utilized as restriction elements, and that the product of the HLA-DR1 transgene enhances the HLA-A*0201-restricted antigen-specific CTL responses (BenMohamed L, Krishnan R, Longmate J, Auge C, Low L, Primus J, Diamond D J, Hum, Immunol. 2000 August; 61(8):764-79).

It is noteworthy that these HLA-A*0201/DR1 Tg mice expressed their own MHC H-2 class I and class II molecules. Because HLA class I transgenic mice expressing endogenous mouse MHC class I genes preferentially and often exclusively develop H-2 restricted CTL response (C Barra, H Gourrnier, Z Garcia, PN Marche, E Jouvin-Marche, P Briand, P Fillipi, and FA Lemonnier J Immunol 1993 150: 3681-3689; Epstein H, Hardy F., May J S, Johnson M H, Holmes N. Eur J. Immunol. 1989 September; 19(9):1575-83; Le A X; E J Bernhard, M J Holterman, S Strub, P Parham, E Lacy, and VH Engelhard J Immunol 1989 142: 13 66-1371; Vitiello A, Marchesini D, Furze J, Sherman L A, Chesnut R W., J Exp Med. 1991 Apr. 1; 173(4):100715), and HLA class II transgenic mice expressing endogenous mouse MHC class II genes fail to induce reliable HLA class II restricted antigen-specific responses (Nishimura Y, Iwanaga T, Inamitsu T, Yanagawa Y, Yasunami M, Kimura A, Hirokawa K, Sasazuki T., J Immunol 1990 Jul. 1; 145(I):353-60), these HLA-A*0201/DR1 Tg mice are of limited utility to assess human-specific responses to antigen.

However, in HLA class I transgenic H-2 class I knock-out mice, or HLA class II transgenic H-2 class II knock-out mice, only HLA-restricted CTL immune responses occur (Pascolo S, Bervas N, Ure J M, Smith A G, Lemonnier F A, Perarnau, B., J Exp Med. 1997 Jun. 16; 185(12). 2043-51; Madsen L, Labrecque N, Engberg J, Dierich A, Svejgaard A, Benoist C, Mathis D, Fugger L., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA-1999 Aug. 31; 96(18):10338-43). In fact, HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-knock-out (KO) mice exhibit the ability to mount enhanced HLA-A2.1-restricted responses as compared to HLA-A2.1-transgenic mice that still express the endogenous murine H-2 class I molecules (Pascolo, S. et al. J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997); Ureta-Vidal, A., Firat, H., Perarnau, B. & Lemonnier, F. A. J Immunol 163, 2555-2560 (1999); Firat, H. et al., Int Immunol 14, 925-934 (2002); Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15, 765-772 (2003)). The inventors have made similar observations with HLA-DR1-transgenic mice, depending on whether or not they are deficient in H-2 class II molecules (A. Pajot, unpublished results). Furthermore, in the absence of competition from murine MHC molecules, the HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO or HLA-DRI-transgenic H-2 class II-Kb mice generate only HLA-restricted immune responses (Pascolo, S. et al. J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997)) (A. Pajot, unpublished results), facilitating the monitoring of HLA-restricted CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cell responses. However, protective immune responses against pathogens, which often require collaboration between T helper and cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells, cannot be studied in the single HLA class I- or HLA class II-transgenic mice, which do not allow the simultaneous assessment of HLA class I and II human responses in the same mouse.

Accordingly, there exists a need in the art for a convenient animal model system to test the immunogenicity of human vaccine candidates comprising constructs containing human CTL epitopes and, in some cases, with the inclusion of high potency CD4+ Th (helper T lymphocyte) epitopes to sustain antiviral and antitumoral CD8+ T-cell activity (A. J. Zajac, K. Murali-Krishna, J. N. Blattman and R. Ahmed, Curr Opin Immunol 10 (1998), p. 444; Firat H, Garcia-Pons F, Tourdot S, Pascolo S, Scardino A, Garcia Z, Michel M L, Jack R W, Jung 0, Kosmatopoulos K, Mateo L, Suhrbier A, Lemonnier F A, Langlade-Demoyen P, Eur J Immunol 29, 3112, 1999). There is also a need for a system that allows the simultaneous assessment of the mutual coordination between a CTL response, a TH response (in particular s TH₁ or TH₂ response), and, optionally, a humoral response.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The inventors have met this need and more by providing mice transgenic for both HLA-A2.1 and HLA-DR1 molecules, in a background that is deficient for both H-2 class I and class II molecules. Specifically, the invention provides mice comprising (1) mutated H-2 class I and class II molecules; and (2) expressing HLA class I transgenic molecules, or HLA class II transgenic molecules, or HLA class I transgenic molecules and HLA class II transgenic molecules. These mice provide a model useful in the development and optimization of vaccine constructs with maximum in vivo immunogenicity for human use. Specifically, such mice enable a complete analysis of the three components of the immune adaptive response (antibody, helper and cytolytic) in a single animal, as well as an evaluation of the protection specifically conferred by vaccination against an antigenic challenge.

Mice of the invention, which comprise a knock-out for both H-2 class I and class II molecules, and express HLA class I transgenic molecules and HLA class II transgenic molecules represent a completely humanized experimental mouse that can be used to simultaneously detect the presence of antigen-specific antibodies, an antigen-specific HLA-DRI restricted T cell response, and an antigen-specific HLA-A2 restricted T cell response. These mice will be useful to study how mutual coordination operates between a CTL response, a TH response (in particular a TH₁ or TH₂ response), and, optionally, a humoral response. These mice represent an optimized tool for basic and applied vaccinology studies.

A first embodiment of the invention provides a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene.

A second embodiment of the invention provides a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene.

In some embodiments, the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene. In other embodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

A further embodiment of the invention provides a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. In an embodiment, the mouse has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2 m°IAβ°. In some embodiments the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a method of simultaneously identifying the presence of one or more epitopes in a candidate antigen or group of antigens, where the one or more epitopes elicits a specific humoral response, a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response, and/or a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response. The method comprises administering the candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°; assaying for a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen; assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen; and assaying for a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen. Observation of a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope that elicits a humoral response in the antigen. Observation of a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope that elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the antigen. Observation of a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the antigen.

In some embodiments, the method includes assaying for a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen and assaying for a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigen. In this case, observation of a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope that elicits a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen, and observation of a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope that elicits a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigen.

This invention also provides a method of identifying the presence of an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope in a candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens, the method comprising administering the candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°; and assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the mouse to the antigen. Observation of a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope that elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the antigen.

In addition, this invention provides an isolated antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope identified by the method of the preceding paragraph. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen further includes an epitope that elicits a humoral response and/or an epitope that elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response. In some embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polypeptide. In other embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polynucleotide. In further embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA.

Further, this invention provides a method of identifying the presence of an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope in a candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens, the method comprising administering the candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°; and assaying for an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to the antigen or group of antigens. Observation of an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to the antigen or group of antigens identifies an epitope that elicits a an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the antigen or group Of antigens.

This invention provides an isolated antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope identified by the method of the preceding paragraph. In some embodiments, the antigen further comprises an epitope that elicits a humoral response and/or an epitope that elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response. In some embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises a polypeptide. In other embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises a polynucleotide. In further embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises, DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA.

This invention also provides a method of comparing the efficiency of the T-helper cell response induced by two or more vaccines. This method comprises administering a first candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; administering a second candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class. II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by the additional candidate vaccine, and determining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a T-helper cell response by comparing the T-helper cell responses to each of the vaccines to be compared with each other. In some embodiments the T-helper cell response is an HLA-DR1 restricted response.

In addition, this invention provides a method of comparing the efficiency of T cytotoxic cell responses induced by two or more vaccines. The method includes administering a first candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the additional candidate vaccine; and determining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a T cytotoxic cell response by comparing the T cytotoxic cell responses to each of the vaccines to be compared with each other. In some embodiments the T cytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.

Further, this invention provides a method of simultaneously comparing the efficiency of T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced by two or more vaccines. The method comprises administering a first candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; administering a second candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by each additional candidate vaccine; and determining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response by comparing the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response to each of the vaccines to be compared with each other. In some embodiments the T-helper cell response is an HLA-DR1 restricted response, and the T cytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.

This invention also provides a method of simultaneously determining the humoral response, the T-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cell response of a mouse following its immunization with an antigen or a vaccine comprising one or more antigens. The method comprises administering the antigen or the vaccine comprising one or more antigens to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and assaying for a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens, assaying for a T-helper cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens, and assaying for a T cytotoxic cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens. In some embodiments the T-helper cell response is a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response. In some embodiments the T cytotoxic cell response is a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response.

This invention also provides a method of optimizing two or more candidate vaccine compositions for administration to a human, based on preselected criteria. The method includes simultaneously determining the humoral response, the T-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cell response of a mouse following its immunization with the two or more candidate vaccine compositions, using a method comprising administering the antigen or the vaccine comprising one or more antigens to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, assaying for a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens, assaying for a T-helper cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens, assaying for a T cytotoxic cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens, and selecting an optimized vaccine by applying preselected criteria to the results. In some embodiments, the two or more vaccine candidates differ only in the ratio of antigen to adjuvant present in the vaccine. In some embodiments, the two or more vaccine candidates differ only in the type of adjuvant present in the vaccine.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of determining whether a vaccine poses a risk of induction of an autoimmune disease when administered to a human. The method comprises administering the vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and assaying for an autoimmune response in the mouse, where observation of an autoimmune response in the mouse indicates that the vaccine poses a risk of induction of an autoimmune disease when administered to a human.

This invention also provides an isolated transgenic mouse cell comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene.

In addition, the invention provides an isolated transgenic mouse cell comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene.

In some embodiments, the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene. In other embodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

Further, this invention provides an isolated transgenic mouse cell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse cell comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. In some embodiments, the transgenic mouse cell has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In other embodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention will be more fully described with reference to the drawings in which:

FIG. 1 shows a flow cytometric analysis of the cell-surface expression of the indicated transgenic molecules. (a) Splenocytes from HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (DR1⁺ CII⁻, left panel), HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO (A2⁺ DR1⁺ CI⁻ CII⁻, central panel), and HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO (A2⁺ CI⁻, right panel) mice were stained with either FITC-labeled W6/32 (anti-HLA-ABC, in abcissas) or biotinylated 28-8-6S (anti-H-2K^(b)/D^(b), in ordinates) m.Ab, the latter revealed with PE-labeled anti-mouse IgG. (b) B220+ splenic B lymphocytes from the same strains of mice, were stained with FITC-labeled L243 (anti-HLA-DR1, upper panels) and PE-labeled AF6-120.1 (anti-H-2 IAβ^(b), lower panels) m.Ab.

FIG. 2 shows CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ splenic T cell numbers and BV segment usage (based on an immunoscope analysis) in mice of the indicated genotypes. (a) Splenocytes from HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (DR1⁺CII⁻, left panel), HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO (A2⁺ DR1⁺ CI⁻ CII⁻, central panel), and HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO (A2⁺ CI⁻, right panel) mice were stained with PE-labeled CT-CD4 (anti-mouse CD4, in ordinates) and FITC-labeled 53-6.7 (anti-mouse CD8, in abcissas) m.Ab. Numbers correspond to percentages of CD4⁺ (upper left square) or CD8⁺ (lower right square) T cells in total splenocytes. (b and c) Immunoscope RT-PCR analysis of purified splenic CD8⁺ (b) and CD4⁺ (c) T cells for BV segment family (1-20) usage using forward BV family (1-20) specific and reverse BC primers. A typical profile for a BV segment family productively rearranged includes a series of peaks with a Gaussian-like distribution differing in length by 3 nucleotides. The Figure illustrates the results obtained with a HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO representative mouse.

FIG. 3 shows HBs-specific antibody, cytolytic and proliferative responses. HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice were or not immunized by intramuscular injection of HBsAg-encoding plasmid-DNA and then individually tested. (a) Humoral (upper panel), cytolytic (middle panel) and proliferative (lower panel) responses and specificity controls of a representative HBsAg-DNA-immunized mouse. The antibody (IgG) titer against HBsAg particles containing both middle and small HBV envelope proteins and against the preS2₁₀₉₋₁₃₄ peptide were determined in an ELISA assay. Cytolytic activity at different effector/target (E/T) ratios was assessed using RMAS-HHD target cells pulsed with either relevant (HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, HLA-A2.1-restricted ♦) or control (HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈, H-2 K^(b)-restricted Δ, and MAGE-3₂₇₁₋₂₇₉, HLA-A2.1-restricted □) peptide. Proliferative responses were detected using either relevant (HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅, HLA-DR1-restricted) or control (HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈, H-2 IA^(b)-restricted and HIV 1 Gag₂₆₃₋₂₇₈, HLA-DR1-restricted) peptide. (b) Similar evaluation of the antibody (IgG, upper panel), cytolytic (middle panel) and proliferative (lower panel) responses of 6 (1-6) HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice as compared to mean responses of 6 naive mice (0). Cytolytic activity at a 30/1 E/T ratio was assessed on RMAS-HHD target cells pulsed with either HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, immunodominant (filled bars) or HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃, subdominant (grey bars) peptide.

FIG. 4 shows results of protection assays. HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-/KO mice were or not immunized twice with plasmid DNA encoding HBsAg. Fifteen days after the last immunization, they were challenged intraperitoneally with 10⁷ PFU of rVV expressing either the HBsAg or the HBx protein. Four days later, animals were tested individually for viral titers in ovaries. The results (rVV PFU/ovary in log 10) are given for the HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice challenged with rVV-HBsAg (I, n=10), naive mice challenged with rVV-HBsAg (N, n=6), HBsAg-immune mice challenged with rVV-HBx (Ix, n=6) and naive mice challenged with rVV-HBx (Nx, n=6).

FIG. 5 shows the AC anti-Pre S2 response in HLA-A2+DR1-CI-CII-mice following a pcmv S2/S immunization.

FIG. 6 shows the T CD4 proliferative response to HLA-DR1 restricted epitopes following immunization of HLA-A2+DR1+CI-CII-mice with pcmv S2-S.

FIG. 7 shows the T CD8 cytotoxic response to the HLA-A2 restricted HBS (348-357) peptide following an immunization of HLA-A2+DR1+CI-CII-mice with pcmv S2/S.

SEQUENCES

SEQ ID NO:1 contains the following subparts: Nucleotides 1-1205 comprise the HLA-A2 promoter; nucleotides 1206-1265 the HLA-A2 leader sequence; nucleotides 1266-1565 the human β2 microgobulin cDNA; nucleotides 1566-1610 a (Gly4Ser)₃ linker; nucleotides 1611-2440 a segment containing exon 2 and part of intron 3 of HLA-A2; and nucleotides 2441-4547 a segment containing part of intron 3, exons 4 to 8, and part of the 3′ non-coding region of the H₂D^(b) gene.

SEQ ID NO:2 is the nucleotide sequence of the DRA*0101 gene. Nucleotides 1-15279 are the promoter located 5′ to the HLA-DR alpha gene, nucleotides 15280-15425 are exon 1, nucleotides 15344-15346 are the ATG start codon, nucleotides 17838-18083 are exon 2, nucleotides 18575-18866 are exon 3, nucleotides 19146-19311 are exon 4, and nucleotides 20008-20340 are exon 5.

SEQ ID NO:3 is the nucleotide sequence of the DRB1*010101 gene. Nucleotides 7391-7552 are exon 1, nucleotides 7453-7455 are the ATG start codon, nucleotides 15809-16079 are exon 2, nucleotides 19536-19817 are exon 3, nucleotides 20515-20624 are exon 4, nucleotides 21097-21121 are exon 5, and nucleotides 21750-22085 are exon 6.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of cell biology, cell culture, molecular biology, transgenic biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA, and immunology, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, for example, Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Ed., ed. by Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press:1989); DNA Cloning, Volumes I and II (D. N. Glover ed., 1985); Oligonucleotide Synthesis (M. J. Gait ed., 1984); Mullis et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,195; Nucleic Acid Hybridization (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Transcription And Translation (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Culture Of Animal Cells (R. I. Freshney, Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1987); Immobilized Cells And Enzymes (IRL Press, 1986); B. Perbal, A Practical Guide To Molecular Cloning (1984); the series, Methods In ENZYMOLOGY (J. Abelson and M. Simon, eds.-in-chief, Academic Press, Inc., New York), specifically, Vols. 154 and 155 (Wu et al. eds.) and Vol. 185, “Gene Expression Technology” (D. Goeddel, ed.); Gene Transfer Vectors For Mammalian Cells (J. H. Miller and M. P. Calos eds., 1987, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory); Immunochemical Methods In Cell And Molecular Biology (Mayer and Walker, eds., Academic Press, London, 1987); Handbook Of Experimental Immunology, Volumes I-IV (D. M. Weir and C. C. Blackwell, eds., 1986); and Manipulating the Mouse Embryo, (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1986).

This invention provides mice comprising (1) mutated H-2 class I and class II molecules; and (2) expressing HLA class I transgenic molecules, or HLA class II transgenic molecules, or HLA class I transgenic molecules and HLA class II transgenic molecules. Mice of the invention, which comprise a knock-out for both H-2 class I and class II molecules, and express HLA class I transgenic molecules and HLA class II transgenic molecules represent a completely humanized experimental mouse that can be used to simultaneously detect the presence of antigen-specific antibodies, an antigen-specific HLA-DRI restricted T cell response, and an antigen-specific HLA-A2 restricted T cell response. These mice are useful to study how mutual coordination operates between a CTL response, a TH response (in particular a TH₁ or TH₂ response), and, optionally, a humoral response. These mice represent an optimized tool for basic and applied vaccinology studies.

The invention provides transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene. In some embodiments, the transgenic mouse comprises a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene. Such a mouse can be said to be a completely humanized experimental mouse, because it can be used to simultaneously detect the presence of antigen-specific antibodies, an antigen-specific HLA-DRI restricted T cell response, and an antigen-specific HLA-A2 restricted T cell response.

As shown, in part, in the Examples provided herein, and as is generally clear to one of skill in the art from the disclosure, HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/clasS II-KO mice have the capacity to develop HBsAg-specific antibody, CD4⁺ helper and CD8⁺ cytolytic T cell responses following DNA immunization. These responses, observed in every single mouse tested, were directed at the same immunodominant epitopes as human responses and conferred to the immunized animals specific protection against a HBsAg recombinant vaccinia virus.

T helper cells are essential for full maturation of antibody responses (Katz, D. H. & Benacerraf, B., Adv Immuno/15, 1-94 (1972)) CTL priming against many epitopes (von Boehmer, H. & Haas, W., J Exp Med 150, 1134-1142 (1979); Keene, J. A. & Forman, J., J Exp Med 155, 768-782 (1982)) and CTL long-term maintenance (Matloubian, M., Concepcion, R. J. & Ahmed, R., J Virol 68, 8056-8063 (1994)). Both antibodies (Lefrancois, L., J Virol 51, 208-214 (1984)) and CTL (Zinkernagel, R. M. & Welsh, R. M., J Immunol 117, 1495-1502 (1976)) are critical components of protective immunity against viral infections. Potent HBsAg-specific antibody and CTL responses were in fact observed in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, but not in HLA-A2.1-single transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice. Thus, HBsAg-specific CD4⁺ T cell help is essential for generating efficient HBsAg-specific CTL and antibody responses. These results are consistent with studies on HBsAg-immunized mice (Milich, D. R., Semin Liver Dis 11, 93-112 (1991)) and HBsAg-vaccinated humans (Celis, E., Kung, P. C. & Chang, T. W., J Immunol 132, 1511-1516 (1984)), which suggest that production of an anti-HBs antibody response is dependent on CD4⁺ T cells.

Transgenic mice expressing both HLA-A2.1 class I and HLA-DR1 class II molecules have already been derived (BenMohamed, L. et al. Hum Immunol 61, 764-779 (2000)). The authors reported that both the HLA-A2.I and HLA-DR1 molecules are functional restriction elements in vivo and that the product of the HLA-DR1 transgene enhances the HLA-A2.1-restricted antigen-specific CTL responses. However, the human relevance of the immune responses in these mice is dwarfed by the fact that they still expressed their own H-2 class I and class II molecules, which are usually preferentially and often exclusively used as restricting elements in response to antigens (Ureta-Vidal, A., Firat, H., Perarnau, B. & Lemonnier, F. A., J Immunol 163, 2555-2560 (1999); Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15, 765-772 (2003)) (A. Pajot, unpublished results). The invention described herein overcomes this limitation by providing HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice.

In some embodiments the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice express, in a β2m-KO context, a HLA-A2.1 monochain in which the human β2m is covalently linked by a peptidic arm to the HLA-A2.1 heavy chain. They further lack cell surface expression of conventional H-2 IA and IE class II molecules as a result of the inactivation of the H-2 IAβ^(b) gene, since H-2 IEα is a pseudogene in the H-2^(b) haplotype. The results provided herein demonstrate that such mice are deprived of cell surface expression of H-2 class I and class II molecules. However, it was reported in one case that a free class I heavy chain, in particular H-2 D^(b), may exist on the surface of a β2m-KO mouse, and could induce an alloreactivity response. Even if this is so, because such mice are empty of peptide, they should not interfere in antigen-specific immune response (Bix, M. & Raulet, D., J Exp Med 176, 829-834 (1992)). This is supported by the report of Allen et at (Allen, H., Fraser, J., Flyer, D., Calvin, S. & Flavell, R., Proc Natl Aced Sci USA 83, 7447-7451 (1986)), in which they confirmed that H-2 D^(b) is expressed at the cell surface even when there is no β2m present within the cell, but that such D^(b) antigen is recognized by neither D^(b)-allospecific or D^(b)-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Furthermore, D^(b) antigens are not recognized by most monoclonal antibodies of the native D^(b).

Nonetheless, in HLA-DRα single transgenic mice, it was reported that unconventional HLA:DRα/H-2 IEβ^(b) hybrid complexes may be expressed to some extent on the cell surface, at least in the absence of the HLA-DRβ chain (Lawrance, S. K. et al., Cell 58, 583-594 (1989)). In spite of this observation, these unconventional molecules were not detected serologically on cell surfaces in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, even with mAb (17-3-3S), which is known to react with such hybrid molecules (Ozato, K., Mayer, N. & Sachs, D. H., J Immunol 124, 533-540 (1980)) (FIG. 1 a and data not shown). In addition, the results obtained on studying HBsAg-specific and HIV 1-Gag-specific T cell responses of these mice were all indicative of exclusive usage of the HLA-A2.1 and HLA-DR1 molecules as restricting elements. This argues that the unconventional HLA-DRα/H-2 IEβ^(b) hybrids were likely unstable compared to conventional HLA-DRα/HLA-Dβ molecules and that they may exist only in the absence of the HLA-DRβ chain. Mouse strains in which the entire (H-2 IAβ^(b), IAα^(b), IEβ^(b)) H-2 class II region has been deleted (Madsen, L. et al., Proc Natl Aced Sci USA 96, 10338-10343 (1999)), as well as the H-2 D^(b) gene, are being analyzed to completely exclude this possibility. Preliminary analysis of splenocytes obtained from the first animals revealed a CD4⁺ T cell pool restoration similar to that observed in HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (Iaβ^(b)°) mice, suggesting that the HLA-DR1-restricted CD4⁺ T cell responses of these new mice should be equivalent to those of the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice.

The peripheral CD8⁺ T lymphocytes of HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, compared to parental HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO mice, are quantitatively and qualitatively similar with full diversification, at least in terms of BV segment usage; of the TCR repertoire. Partial restoration compared to wild-type animals, especially of the CD8⁺ T cell pool, has been a constant observation in single HLA-transgenic mice expressing a chimeric (α3 domain of mouse origin) HLA-A2.1 molecule (Pascolo, S. et al., J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997)). Regardless of the α3 domain substitution, the interaction remains suboptimal between mouse CD8 and HLA-A2.1 molecules, since co-crystal analysis has documented that human CD8 also contacts the HLA-A2.1 heavy chain α2 domain (Gao, G. F. et al., Nature 387, 630-634 (1997)). Suboptimal cooperation might also occur in the endoplasmic reticulum where many molecules (TAP, tapasine, ERp 57) assist MHC class I molecule biosynthesis. However, at this stage, the only documented functional difference between these mice and human endoplasmic reticulum molecules, namely the efficient transport by human but not mouse TAP of COOH-terminus positively charged cytosolic peptides (Momburg, F., Neefjes, J. J. & Hammerling, G. J., Curr Opin Immunol 6, 32-37 (1994)), is not relevant for HLA-A2.1 molecules which bind peptides with a hydrophobic C-terminus, since these peptides are transported efficiently by mouse and human TAP. Even though the number of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes is lower in both single HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice and in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, they respond efficiently against HBsAg and, importantly, the latter mice develop antibody, helper and cytolytic cell responses similar to humans.

One of the difficulties hampering the design of T-epitope-based vaccines targeting T lymphocytes is HLA class I/class II molecule polymorphism. HLA-A2.1 and HLA-DR1 molecules are expressed by a significant proportion of individuals in human populations (30 to 50% for HLA-A2.1, 6 to 18% for HLA-DR1). Even though the functional clustering of HLA class I molecules in superfamilies is based on significant redundancy of the presented sets of peptides³⁴, individual analysis of the responses elicited by each HLA class I isotypic or allelic variant remains desirable to identify the optimal epitopes they present. This is particularly important to devise a new reagent, such as tetramer (HLA-class I or HLA-class II) to monitor the immune response. For the same reason, it would be helpful to obtain strains of mice co-expressing HLA-A2.1 with other HLA class II molecules, even if the binding of peptides to HLA class II molecules is less restrictive than to class I molecules. Based on the disclosure herein, additional HLA class I-/class II-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice can be constructed for these and other purposes.

Whereas HLA-transgenic H-2-KO mice enable a detailed analysis and optimization of the immunogenicity of antigenic peptides with excellent transposability to humans (Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15, 765-772 (2003); Loirat, D., Lemonnier, F. A. & Michel, M. L., J Immunol 165, 4748-4755 (2000); Scardino, A. et al., Eur J Immunol 31, 3261-3270 (2001)) this is less evident for vaccine adjuvant-formulation studies. This could be due to differences between the two species in the various effectors that are mobilized early in response to an antigenic challenge. Increasing fundamental knowledge of innate immunity might, in the future, lead to a more complete humanization of the mouse immune system.

In conclusion, the disclosure herein describes an optimized, humanized transgenic mouse model, whose H-2 class I (mouse (β2m) and class II (H-2 IAβ^(b)) genes have been deleted and replaced with equivalent human genes HHD (HLA-A*0201), HLA-DRA*0101 and HLA-DRB1*0101. Cellular immunity in the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice is completely restricted by the human HLA molecules, with a complete absence of immune responses restricted by the murine MHC molecules. The absence of competition between murine MHC and human (transgenic) HLA immune responses allows for use of these mice to characterize epitopes in human vaccines that require collaboration between HLA-restricted CD4⁺ T helper and HLA-restricted CD8⁺ T cytolytic cells.

“HLA” is the human MHC complex, and “H-2” the mouse MHC complex. The human complex comprises three class I α-chain genes, HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C, and three pairs of MHC class II α- and β-chain genes, HLA-DR, -DP, and -DQ. In many haplotypes, the HLA-DR cluster contains an extra β-chain gene whose product can pair with the DRα chain, and so the three sets of genes give rise to four types of MHC class II molecules. In the mouse, the three class I α-chain genes are H-2-L, H-2-D, and H-2-K. The mouse MHC class II genes are H-2-A and H-2-E.

It is known in the art that genetic diversity exists between the HLA genes of different individuals as a result of both polymorphic HLA antigens and distinct HLA alleles. Accordingly, embodiments of the invention disclosed herein may substitute one polymorphic HLA antigen for another or one HLA allele for another. Examples of HLA polymorphisms and alleles can be found, for example, at http://www.anthonynolan.org.uk/HIG/data.html and http://www.ebi.ac.uk/imgt/hla, and in Genetic diversity of Functional and Medical Implication, Dominique Charon (Ed.), EDK Medical and Scientific International Publisher, and The HLA FactsBook, Steven G. E. Marsh, Peter Parham and Linda Barber, AP Academic Press, 2000.

A “disrupted” gene is one that has been mutated using homologous recombination or other approaches known in the art. A disrupted gene can be either a hypomorphic allele of the gene or a null allele of the gene. One of skill in the art will recognize that the type of allele to be used can be selected for any particular context. In many embodiments of the invention, a null allele is preferred.

“Homologous recombination” is a general approach for targeting mutations to a preselected, desired gene sequence of, a cell in order to produce a transgenic animal (Mansour, S. L. et al., Nature 336:348-352 (1988); Capecchi, M. R., Trends Genet. 5:70-76 (1989); Capecchi, M. R., Science 244:1288-1292 (1989); Capecchi, M. R. et al., In: Current Communications in Molecular Biology, Capecchi, M. R. (ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989), pp. 45-52; Frohman, M. A. et al., Cell 56:145-147 (1989)).

It is now be feasible to deliberately alter any gene in a mouse (Capecchi, M: R., Trends Genet. 5:70-76 (1989); Frohman, M. A. et al., Cell 56:145-147 (1989)). Gene targeting involves the use of standard recombinant DNA techniques to introduce a desired mutation into a cloned DNA sequence of a chosen locus. That mutation is then transferred through homologous recombination to the genome of a pluripotent, embryo-derived stem (ES) cell. The altered stem cells are microinjected into mouse blastocysts and are incorporated into the developing mouse embryo to ultimately develop into chimeric animals. In some cases, germ line cells of the chimeric animals will be derived from the genetically altered ES cells, and the mutant genotypes can be transmitted through breeding.

Gene targeting has been used to produce chimeric and transgenic mice in which an nptII gene has been inserted into the β₂-microglobulin locus (Koller, B. H. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.A.) 86:8932-8935 (1989); Zijlstra, M. et al., Nature 342:435-438 (1989); Zijlstra, M. et al., Nature 344:742-746 (1989); DeChiaba et al., Nature 345:78-80 (1990)). Similar experiments have enabled the production of chimeric and transgenic animals having a c-abl gene which has been disrupted by the insertion of an nptII gene (Schwartzberg, P. L. et al., Science 246:799-803 (1989)). The technique has been used to produce chimeric mice in which the en-2 gene has been disrupted by the insertion of an nptII gene (Joyner, A. L. et al., Nature 338:153-155 (1989)).

In order to utilize the “gene targeting” method, the gene of interest must have been previously cloned, and the intron-exon boundaries determined. The method results in the insertion of a marker gene (e.g., an nptII gene) into a translated region of a particular gene of interest. Thus, use of the gene targeting method results in the gross destruction of the gene of interest.

Significantly, the use of gene targeting to alter a gene of a cell results in the formation of a gross alteration in the sequence of that gene. The efficiency of gene targeting depends upon a number of variables, and is different from construct to construct.

The chimeric or transgenic animal cells of the present invention are prepared by introducing one or more DNA molecules into a cell, which may be a precursor pluripotent cell, such as an ES cell, or equivalent (Robertson, E. J., In: Current Communications in Molecular Biology, Capecchi, M. R. (ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989), pp. 39-44). The term “precursor” is intended to denote only that the pluripotent cell is a precursor to the desired (“transfected”) pluripotent cell, which is prepared in accordance with the teachings of the present invention. The pluripotent (precursor or transfected) cell can be cultured in vivo in a manner known in the art (Evans, M. J. et al., Nature 292:154-156 (1981)) to form a chimeric or transgenic animal.

Any ES cell can be used in accordance with the present invention. It is, however, preferred to use primary isolates of ES cells. Such isolates can be obtained directly from embryos, such as the CCE cell line disclosed by Robertson, E. J., In: Current Communications in Molecular Biology, Capecchi, M. R. (ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989), pp. 39-44), or from the clonal isolation of ES cells from the CCE cell line (Schwartzberg, P. A. et al., Science 246:799-803 (1989), which reference is incorporated herein by reference). Such clonal isolation can be accomplished according to the method of E. J. Robertson (In: Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic Stem Cells: A Practical Approach, (E. J. Robertson, Ed.), IRL Press, Oxford, 1987), which reference and method are incorporated herein by reference. The purpose of such clonal propagation is to obtain ES cells, which have a greater efficiency for differentiating into an animal. Clonally selected ES cells are approximately 10-fold more effective in producing transgenic animals than the progenitor cell line CCE. For the purposes of the recombination methods of the present invention, clonal selection provides no advantage.

An example of ES cell lines, which have been clonally derived from embryos, are the ES cell lines, AB1 (hprt⁺) or AB2.1 (hprt⁻). The ES cells are preferably cultured on stromal cells (such as STO cells (especially SNC4 STO cells) and/or primary embryonic fibroblast cells) as described by E. J. Robertson (In: Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic Stem Cells: A Practical Approach, (E. J. Robertson, Ed., IRL Press, Oxford, 1987, pp 71-112), which reference is incorporated herein by reference. Methods for the production and analysis of chimeric mice are disclosed by Bradley, A. (In: Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic Stem Cells: A Practical Approach, (E. J. Robertson, Ed.), IRL Press, Oxford, 1987, pp 113-151), which reference is incorporated herein by reference. The stromal (and/or fibroblast) cells serve to eliminate the clonal overgrowth of abnormal ES cells. Most preferably, the cells are cultured in the presence of leukocyte inhibitory factor (“lif”) (Gough, N. M. et al., Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 1:281-288 (1989); Yamamori, Y. et al., Science 246:1412-1416 (1989), both of which references are incorporated herein by reference). Since the gene encoding lif has been cloned (Gough, N. M. et al., Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 1:281-288 (1989)), it is especially preferred to transform stromal cells with this gene, by means known in the art, and to then culture the ES cells on transformed stromal cells that secrete lif into the culture medium.

As used herein, the term “transgene” refers to a nucleic acid sequence, which is partly or entirely heterologous, i.e., foreign, to the transgenic animal or cell into which it is introduced, or, is homologous to an endogenous gene of the transgenic animal or cell into which it is introduced, but which is designed to be inserted, or is inserted, into the animal's genome in such a way as to alter the genome of the cell into which it is inserted (e.g., it is inserted at a location which differs from that of the natural gene or its insertion results in a knockout). A transgene can be operably linked to one or more transcriptional regulatory sequences and any other nucleic acid, such as introns, that may be necessary for optimal expression of a selected nucleic acid. Exemplary transgenes of the present invention encode, for instance an H-2 polypeptide. Other exemplary transgenes are directed to disrupting one or more HLA genes by homologous recombination with genomic sequences of an HLA gene.

A “functional transgene” is one that produces an mRNA transcript, which in turn produces a properly processed protein in at least one cell of the mouse comprising the transgene. One of skill will realize that the diverse set of known transcriptional regulatory elements and sequences directing posttranscriptional processing provide a library of options from which to direct the expression of a transgene is a host mouse. In many embodiments of the invention, expression of an HLA transgene under the control of an H-2 gene regulatory element may be preferred.

In some embodiments, the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene. An example of an HLA-A2 transgene is one that comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing. An example of an HLA-DR1 transgene is one that comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

In an embodiment, the invention provides a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. In some embodiments, the mouse has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In other embodiments the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

The invention also provides isolated transgenic mouse cells. In some cases the cell comprises a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene. In others, the cell comprises a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene. The HLA class I transgene can be an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene can be an HLA-DR1 transgene. In some cases, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

In an embodiment, the invention provides an isolated transgenic mouse cell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. The isolated transgenic mouse cells can have the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. The HLA-A2 transgene can comprise the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene can comprise the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

The isolated transgenic mouse cells of the invention can have the genotype of any mouse of the invention. However, the set of genotypes of the isolated transgenic mouse cells of the invention, and the set of genotypes of the mice of the invention are not necessarily entirely overlapping.

The isolated mouse cells of the invention can be obtained from a mouse or mouse embryo. In one, embodiment, the mouse or mouse embryo has the same genotype as the cell to be obtained. In another embodiment, the mouse or mouse embryo has a different genotype than the cell to be obtained. After the cell is obtained from the mouse or mouse embryo, a gene of the cell can be disrupted by, for example, homologous recombination. Additionally, a functional transgene can be introduced into the genome of the cell by, for example, transfection. One of skill in the art will recognize that any suitable method known in the art can be applied to modify the genome of the cell to thereby obtain an isolated mouse cell having the desired genotype.

An additional object of the invention is an isolated transgenic mouse cell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse cell comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. In some embodiments, the transgenic mouse cell has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In other embodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

T cells play a central role in many aspects of acquired immunity, carrying out a variety of regulatory and defensive functions. When some T cells encounter an infected or cancerous cell, they recognize it as foreign and respond by acting as killer cells, killing the host's own cells as part of the cell-mediated immune response. Other T cells, designated helper T cells, respond to perceived foreign antigens by stimulating B cells to produce antibodies, or by suppressing certain aspects of a humoral or cellular immune response.

T helper cells (Th) orchestrate much of the immune response via the production of cytokines. Although generally identifiable as bearing the CD4 cell surface marker, these cells are functionally divided into Th1 or Th2 subpopulations according to the profile of cytokines they produce and their effect on other cells of the immune system.

The Th1 cells detect invading pathogens or cancerous host cells through a recognition system referred to as the T cell antigen receptor. Termed cellular immunity, Th1-related processes generally involve the activation of non-B cells and are frequently characterized by the production of IFN-γ. Nevertheless, although the Th1 system is primarily independent from the production of humoral antibodies, Th1 cytokines do promote immunoglobulin class switching to the IgG_(2a) isotype.

Upon detection of a foreign antigen, most mature Th1 cells direct the release of IL-2, IL-3, IFN-γ, TNF-β, GM-CSF, high levels of TNF-α, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and RANTES. These cytokines promote delayed-type hypersensitivity and general cell-mediated immunity. IL-2, for instance, is a T cell growth factor that promotes the production of a clone of additional T cells sensitive to the particular antigen that was initially detected. The sensitized T cells attach to and attack cells or pathogens containing the antigen.

In contrast, mature Th2 cells tend to promote the secretion of IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-10, IL-13, GM-CSF, and low levels of TNF-α. In addition, the Th2 response promotes humoral immunity by activating B cells, stimulating antibody production and secretion, and inducing class switching to IgA, IgG₁ and IgE isotypes.

As used herein, an “antigen” comprises: 1) at least one HTL epitope, or 2) at least one CTL epitope or, 3) at least one B cell epitope, or 4) at least one HTL epitope and at least one CTL epitope, or 5) at least one HTL epitope and at least one B cell epitope, or 6) at least one CTL epitope and at least one B cell epitope, or 7) at least one HTL epitope and at least one CTL epitope and at least one B cell epitope. A “candidate antigen” a molecule that is under investigation to determine whether it functions as an antigen.

A “humoral immune response” is antibody-mediated specific immunity.

An “epitope” is a site on an antigen that is recognized by the immune system. An antibody epitope is a site on an antigen recognized by an antibody. A T-cell epitope is a site on an antigen that binds to an MHC molecule. A TH epitope is one that binds to an MHC class II molecule. A CTL epitope is one that binds to an MHC class I molecule.

The antigen can comprise a polypeptide sequence or a polynucleotide sequence, which can comprise RNA, DNA, or both. In one embodiment, the antigen comprises at least one polynucleotide sequence operationally encoding one or more antigenic polypeptides. Used in this context, the word “comprises” intends that at least one antigenic polypeptide is provided by the transcription and/or translation apparatus of a host cell acting upon an exogenous polynucleotide that encodes at least one antigenic polypeptide, as described, for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,194,389 and 6,214,808.

Antigens of the invention can be any antigenic molecule. Antigenic molecules include: proteins, lipoproteins, and glycoproteins, including viral, bacterial, parasitic, animal, and fungal proteins such as albumins, tetanus toxoid, diphtheria toxoid, pertussis toxoid, bacterial outer membrane proteins (including meningococcal outer membrane protein), RSV-F protein, malarial derived peptide, B-lactoglobulin B, aprotinin, ovalbumin, lysozyme, and tumor associated antigens such as carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), CA 15-3, CA 125, CA 19-9, prostrate specific antigen (PSA), and the TAA complexes of U.S. Pat. No. 5,478,556, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; carbohydrates, including naturally-occurring and synthetic polysaccharides and other polymers such as ficoll, dextran, carboxymethyl cellulose, agarose, polyacrylamide and other acrylic resins, poly (lactide-co-glycolide), polyvinyl alcohol, partially hydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylpyrrolidine, Group B Streptococcal and Pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides (including type III), Pseudomonas aeruginosa mucoexopolysaccharide, and capsular polysaccharides (including fisher type I), and Haemophilus influenzae polysaccharides (including PRP); haptens, and other moieties comprising low molecular weight molecules, such as TNP, saccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, peptides, toxins, drugs, chemicals, and allergens; and haptens and antigens derived from bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi, viruses, parasites, including Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae, E. Coli, Klebsiella, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, N. meningiditis, Polio, Mumps, measles, rubella, Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Rabies, Ebola, Anthrax, Listeria, Hepatitis A, B, C, Human Immunodeficiency Virus I and II, Herpes simplex types 1 and 2, CMV, EBV, Varicella Zoster, Malaria, Tuberculosis, Candida albicans, and other candida, Pneumocystis carinii, Mycoplasma, Influenzae virus A and B, Adenovirus, Group A streptococcus, Group B streptococcus, Pseudomonas aeryinosa, Rhinovirus, Leishmania, Parainfluenzae, types 1, 2 and 3, Coronaviruses, Salmonella, Shigella, Rotavirus, Toxoplasma, Enterovirusses, and Chlamydia trachomatis and pneumoniae.

As used herein, a pharmaceutical composition or vaccine comprises at least one immunological composition, which can be dissolved, suspended, or otherwise associated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or vehicle. Any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can be employed for administration of the composition. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Edition (A. Gennaro, ed., 1990) Mack Pub., Easton, Pa., which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water, polyethylene glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), oils, including petroleum oil, animal oil, vegetable oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil, and the like. Carriers can be in the form of mists, sprays, powders, waxes, creams, suppositories, implants, salves, ointments, patches, poultices, films, or cosmetic preparations.

Proper formulation of the pharmaceutical composition or vaccine is dependent on the route of administration chosen. For example, with intravenous administration by bolus injection or continuous infusion, the compositions are preferably water soluble, and saline is a preferred carrier. For transcutaneous, intranasal, oral, gastric, intravaginal, intrarectal, or other transmucosal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated can be included in the formulation and are known in the art. For oral administration, the active ingredient can be combined with carriers suitable for inclusion into tablets, pills, dragees, capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions, and the like. Time-sensitive delivery systems are also applicable for the administration of the compositions of the invention. Representative systems include polymer base systems, such as poly(lactide-glycoside), copolyoxalates, polycaprolactones, polyesteramides, polyorthoesters, polyhydroxybutyric acid and polyanhydrides. These and like polymers can be formulated into microcapsules according to methods known in the art, for example, as taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,075,109, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Alternative delivery systems appropriate for the administration of the disclosed immunostimulatory compounds of the invention include those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,194,389, 6,024,983 5,817,637, 6,228,621, 5,804,212, 5,709,879, 5,703,055, 5,643,605, 5,643,574, 5,580,563, 5,239,660, 5,204,253, 4,748,043, 4,667,014, 4,452,775, 3,854,480, and 3,832,252 (each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

Aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions can also be employed as liquid carriers, particularly for injectable or aerosol solutions. For administration by aerosol, as by pressurized spray or nebulizer, suitable propellants can be added as understood by those familiar with the art. The immunological composition can also be formulated with solubilizing agents; emulsifiers; stabilizers; dispersants; flavorants; adjuvants; carriers; topical anesthetics, such as lidocaine, xylocaine, and the like; antibiotics; and known or suspected anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic, or anti-tumor compounds.

An “adjuvant” is a composition that promotes or enhances an immune response to a target antigen. One of skill in the art can select an appropriate adjuvant for use in practicing the present invention in view of the disclosure herein.

The present invention encompasses methods of treating a patient in need of immune stimulation by administering a composition comprising one or more antigens of the invention. As used herein, treatment encompasses corrective, restorative, ameliorative, and preventive methods relating to any disease, condition, abnormality, or symptom. Treatment further encompasses the elicitation or suppression of an immune response in an experimental animal or ex vivo.

Thus, treatment comprises administering an immunostimulatory amount of any of the immunostimulatory compositions of the invention by any method familiar to those of ordinary skill in the art, commonly including oral and intranasal routes, and intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous injections, but also encompassing, intraperitoneal, intracorporeal, intra-articular, intraventricular, intrathecal, topical, tonsillar, mucosal, transdermal, intravaginal administration and by gavage.

As is recognized by the skilled practitioner, choosing an appropriate administration method may contribute to the efficacy of a treatment, and local administration may be preferred for some applications. Acceptable routes of local administration include subcutaneous, intradermal, intraperitoneal, intravitreal, inhalation or lavage, oral, intranasal, and directed injection into a predetermined tissue, organ, joint, tumor, or cell mass. For example, mucosal application or injection into mucosal lymph nodes or Peyer's patches may promote a humoral immune response with substantial IgA class switching. Alternatively, targeted injection into a lesion, focus, or affected body site may be applicable for the treatment of solid tumors, localized infections, or other situs requiring immune stimulation.

Alternatively, cells of the immune system (e.g., T cells, B cells, NK cells, or oligodendrocytes) can be removed from a host and treated in vitro. The treated cells can be further cultured or reintroduced to a patient (or to a heterologous host) to provide immune stimulation to the patient or host. For example, bone marrow cells can be aspirated from a patient and treated with an HDR to stimulate global or specific immunity. High-dose radiation, or comparable treatments, can then be used to destroy the remaining immune cells in the patient. Upon re-implantation, the autologous stimulated cells will restore normal immune function in the patient. Alternatively, NK and/or T cells isolated from a patient suffering from cancer may be exposed in vitro to one or more antigens specific to the patient's cancer. Upon re-implantation into the patient, the antigen-stimulated cells will deploy a vigorous cellular immune response against the cancerous cells.

An immunostimulatory (efficacious) amount refers to that amount of vaccine that is able to stimulate an immune response in a patient, which is sufficient to prevent, ameliorate, or otherwise treat a pathogenic challenge, allergy, or immunologic abnormality or condition. An immunostimulatory amount is that amount, which provides a measurable increase in a humoral or cellular immune response to at least one epitope of the antigen as compared to the response obtained if the antigen is administered to the patient without prior treatment with the vaccine. Thus, for example, an immunostimulatory amount refers to that amount of an antigen-containing composition that is able to promote the production of antibodies directed against an antigenic epitope of interest or stimulate a detectable protective effect against a pathogenic or allergenic challenge or to promote a protective CTL response against an antigenic epitope of interest.

Treatment with an immunostimulatory amount of an antigen-containing composition of the invention comprises effecting any directly, indirectly, or statistically observable or measurable increase or other desired change in the immune response in a host, specifically including an ex vivo tissue culture host, comprising at least one cell of the immune system or cell line derived therefrom. Host cells can be derived from human or animal peripheral blood, lymph nodes or the like. Preferred tissue culture hosts include freshly isolated T cells, B cells, macrophages, oligodendrocytes, NK cells, and monocytes, each of which can be isolated or purified using standard techniques. Observable or measurable responses include, B or T cell proliferation or activation; increased antibody secretion; isotype switching; increased cytokine release, particularly the increased release of one or more of IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, TNF-α, TNF-β, GM-CSF, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or RANTES; increased antibody titer or avidity against a specific antigen; reduced morbidity or mortality rates associated with a pathogenic infection; promoting, inducing, maintaining, or reinforcing viral latency; suppressing or otherwise ameliorating the growth, metastasis, or effects, of malignant and non-malignant tumors; and providing prophylactic protection from a disease or the effects of a disease.

Where the suppression of an immunological response is desired, for example, in the treatment of autoimmune disease or allergy, an effective amount also encompasses that amount sufficient to effect a measurable or observable decrease in a response associated with the condition or pathology to be treated.

The amount of an antigen-containing composition to be administered and the frequency of administration can be determined empirically and will take into consideration the age and size of the patient being treated, and the condition or disease to be addressed. An appropriate dose is within the range of 0.01 μg to 100 μg per inoculum, but higher and lower amounts may also be indicated. Secondary booster immunizations can be given at intervals ranging from one week to many months later.

The following examples demonstrate certain embodiments of the invention. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize the numerous modifications and variations that may be performed without altering the spirit or scope of the present invention. Such modifications and variations are believed to be encompassed within the scope of the invention. The examples do not in any way limit the invention.

EXAMPLES

The following experimental techniques and reagents were used to demonstrate certain nonlimiting embodiments of the invention.

Transgenic Mice

The HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (IA β^(b)°) mice were obtained at the Institut Pasteur of Lille by crossing HLA-DR1-transgenic mice (Altmann, D. M. et al., J Exp Med 181, 867-875 (1995)) with H-2 class II-KO (IA β^(b)°) mice (Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15, 765-772 (2003)). The HLA-A2.1-transgenic mice, expressing a chimeric monochain (HHD molecule: α1-α2 domains of HLA-A2.1, α3 to cytoplasmic domains of H-2 D^(b), linked at its N-terminus to the C terminus of human β2m by a 15 amino-acid peptide linker) were created (Pascolo, S. et al., J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997)). HLA-A2.1 (HHD)-transgenic H-2 class I-KO and HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (IA β^(b)°) mice were intercrossed and progenies screened until HLA-A2.1^(+/−)/HLA-DR1^(+/−) double transgenic H-2-class I)(β2m⁰)-/class II (IAβ⁰)-KO animals were obtained and used for the experiments described herein. HLA-A2.1^(+/−) single transgenic H-2-class I (β2m⁰)-/class II (IAβ⁰)-KO mice were used as controls in the protection assays. Mice were bred in the animal facilities at the Institut Pasteur, Paris; all protocols were reviewed by the Institut Pasteur competent authority for compliance with the French and European regulations on Animal Welfare and with Public Health Service recommendations.

Genotypinq

The HLA-DRB1*0101, HLA-DRA*0101 and HLA-A*0201 transgenes were detected by PCR. Tail-DNA was extracted after overnight incubation at 56° C. in 100 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.2, 100 mM EDTA, 1% SDS and 0.5 mg/ml proteinase K, followed by the addition of 250 μl of saturated NaCl solution and isopropanol precipitation. The samples were washed (3×) in 70% ethanol and resuspended in 150 μl of 10 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA pH 8. PCR conditions were: 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 1.25 U Of Taq Polymerase, buffer supplied by the manufacturer (InVitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), 1 cycle (7 min, 94° C.), 40 cycles (30 sec, 94° C.; 30 sec, 60° C.; 1 min, 72° C.), 1 cycle (4 min, 72° C.), using as forward and reverse primers, for HHD: 5′CAT TGA GAC AGA GCG CTT GGC ACA GAA GCA G 3′ and 5′GGA TGA CGT GAG TAA ACC TGA ATC TTT GGA GTA CGC 3′, for HLA-DRB1*0101: 5′ TTC TTC AAC GGG ACG GAG CGG GTG 3′ and 5′ CTG CAC TGT GAA GCT CTC ACC AAC 3′, and for HLA-DRA*0101: 5′ CTC CAA GCC CTC TCC CAG AG 3′ and 5′ ATG TGC CTT ACA GAG GCC CC 3′.

FACS Analysis

Cytofluorimetry studies were performed on red-blood cell-depleted, Lympholyte M-purified (Tebu-bio, Le Perray en Yvelines, France) splenocytes using FITC-conjugated W6/32 (anti-HLA-ABC, Sigma, St Louis, Mo.) and biotinilated anti-28-8-6S (anti-H-2 K^(b)/D^(b), BD Biosciences, San Diego, Calif.) m.Ab. CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes were stained using PE-labeled CT-CD4 anti-mouse CD4 (CALTAG, South San Francisco, Calif.) and FITC-labeled 53-6.7 anti-mouse CD8 m.Ab (BD Biosciences). Analysis of MHC class II molecule expression was performed on B220⁺ B lymphocytes positively selected on MS columns (Miltenyi Biotec, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany). Following saturation of Fc receptors with 2.4G2 m.Ab, expression of HLA-DR1 and H-2 IA^(b) was analyzed using FITC-labeled L243 (anti-HLA-DR) and PE-labeled AF6-120.1 (anti-H-2 IAβ^(b)) m.Ab (BD Biosciences). Paraformaldehyde fixed cells were analyzed with a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson, Bedford, Mass.).

Immunoscope Analyses

CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells from naive mice were positively selected on Auto-Macs (Miltenyi Biotec), RNA prepared using RNA Easy Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) and used for cDNA synthesis. The cDNA was PCR-amplified using forward primers specific for each BV segment family and a reverse primer shared by the two BC segments. PCR-products were subjected to a run-off-elongation with internal BC FAM-tagged primer. The run-off products were loaded on a 6% acrylamide/8 M urea gel for separation (7 h, 35 W) with a 373A DNA sequencer (Perkin Elmer Applied Biosystem, Foster City, Calif.). Data were analyzed using immunoscope software (Pannetier, C. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90, 4319-4323 (1993)).

Peptides

The HLA-A2 binding peptides HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ GLSPTVWLSV and HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ WLSLLVPFV, the H-2 K^(b) binding peptide HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈ ILSPFLPL, the HLA-DR1 binding peptide HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ QAGFFLLTRILTIPQS, the H-2 IA^(b) binding peptide HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈ RGLYFPAGGSSSG and the preS2 peptide HBsAg₁₀₉₋₁₃₄ MQWNSTTFHQTLQDPRVRGLYFPAGG were synthesized by Neosystem (Strasbourg, France) and dissolved in PBS-10% DMSO at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. The numbering of the amino acid sequence of peptides starts from the first methionine of the HBV ayw subtype preS1 domain.

Immunization with DNA Encoding the S2-S Proteins of HBV

The pCMV-S2.S plasmid vector (Michel, M. L. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 5307-5311 (1995)) coding for the preS2 and the S HBV surface antigens expressed under the control of the human CMV immediate early gene promotor was purified on Plasmid Giga Kit columns under endotoxin free conditions (Qiagen). Anesthetized mice were injected (50 μg each side) into regenerating tibialis anterior muscles, as previously described (Davis, H. L., Michel, M. L. & Whalen, R. G., Hum Mol Genet 2, 1847-1851 (1993)).

T Cell Proliferation Assay

Twelve days after the last immunization, red-blood cell-depleted, Ficoll-purified splenocytes (5.10⁶ cells/25 cm² culture flask (Techno Plastic Products (TPP), Trasadingen, Switzerland)) were co-cultured with peptide-pulsed (20 μg/ml), γ-irradiated (180 Gy) LPS-blasts (5.10⁶ cells/culture flask) in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% FCS, 10 mM HEPES, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 5×10⁻⁵ M 2-mercaptoethanol, 100 I.U/ml penicillin and 100 μg streptomycin, as described (Loirat, D., Lemonnier, F. A. & Michel, M. L., J Immuno/165, 474&4755 (2000)). On day 7, for proliferation assays, cells were plated (5×10⁵ cells/well of flat bottomed 96 well microplates, (TPP)) with peptide-pulsed irradiated LPS-Blasts (2×10⁵ cells/well) for 72 h in complete RPMI medium supplemented with 3% FCS. Cells were pulsed for the final 16 h with 1 μCi of (³H)-thymidine per well before being harvested on filtermates with a TOMTEC collector (Perkin Elmer Applied Biosystem), and incorporated radioactivity was measured on a micro-β counter (Perkin Elmer Applied Biosystem). Results are given as stimulation index (SI)=cpm with specific peptide/cpm with irrelevant peptide.

Measurement of CTL Activity

Cytotoxicity assays were performed on the same immune splenocyte populations as the proliferation assays. Responder cells (5.10⁶ cells/25 cm² culture flask, TPP) and stimulating peptide-pulsed (20 μg/ml), γ-irradiated (180 Gy) LPS-blasts (5.10⁶ cells/culture flask) were co-cultured for 7 days in the same supplemented RPMI medium as for proliferation assays. Cytolytic activity was tested in a standard 4 h ⁵¹Cr assay against RMA-S HHD target cells pulsed with 10 μg/ml of the experimental or control peptides. Specific lysis, in %, was calculated in duplicates, according to: [experimental-spontaneous release]/[maximal-spontaneous release]×100, substracting the non-specific lysis observed with the control peptide.

Measurement of In Vivo Antibody Production

At various times before and after DNA injection, blood was collected from mice by retrobulbar puncture with heparinized glass pipettes, and sera recovered by centrifugation were assayed for anti-HBs and anti-preS2 by specific ELISA. Purified recombinant particles containing HBV small S protein (1 μg/ml) or preS2 (120-145) synthetic peptide (1 μg/ml) were used as the solid phase. After blocking with PBST (PBS containing 0.1% Tween 20) supplemented with 10% FCS, serial dilutions were added. After extensive washing, the bound antibodies were detected with anti mouse Ig (total IgG) labeled with horseradish peroxidase (Amersham, Little Chalfont, UK). Antibody titers were determined by the serial end-point dilution method. Mouse sera were tested individually, and titers were the mean of at least three determinations. Serum dilutions below 1/100 were considered negative.

Antibody Titration

Sera from immunized mice were individually assayed by ELISA (Michel, M. L. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 5307-5311 (1995)) on either purified HBV middle and small pro pins or preS2 synthetic HBs₁₀₉₋₁₃₄. peptide, After blocking with PBS 1× supplemented with 0.1% Tween 20, 10% FCS and washings (×3), bound antibodies were detected with horseradish peroxidase-labeled anti-mouse IgG (Amersham, Little Chalfont, UK). Antibody titers (means of at least 3 determinations) were determined by the serial end-point dilution method. Titers below 1/100 were considered negative.

Vaccinia Challenge and Plaque Assay

DNA-injected mice were challenged intraperitoneally 12 days post last injection with 10⁷ PFU of recombinant vaccinia virus (Western Reserve strain) expressing either the HbsAg (Smith, G. L., Mackett, M. & Moss, B., Nature 302, 490-495 (1983)) or the HBx protein (Schek, N., Bartenschlager, R., Kuhn, C. & Schaller, H., Oncogene 6, 1735-1744. (1991)) kindly provided, respectively, by Dr B. Moss and Dr H. Schaller. Four days later, ovaries were assayed for rVV titers by plaque assay on BHK 21 cells (Buller, R. M. & Wallace, G. D., Lab Anim Sci 35, 473-476 (1985).

Example 1 Cell Surface Expression of MHC Molecules

Cell surface expression of the HLA-A2.1, H-2 K^(b)/D^(b), HLA-DR1, and H-2 IA^(b) molecules was evaluated on splenocytes by flow cytometry. As illustrated in FIG. 1 a, a similar level of HLA-A2.1 expression was observed in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice and HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice, while HLA-A2.1 was absent and H-2 K^(b)/D^(b) expressed exclusively in HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class II-KO mice. Cell surface expression of HLA-DR1 and H-2 IA^(b) was measured on B220⁺-enriched B cells. As shown in FIG. 1 b, a similar level of HLA-DR1 expression was observed in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice and HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class II-KO mice, whereas no expression was detected in HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice. Cell surface expression of the transgenic molecules (especially HLA-DR1) was, however, lower than the expression of endogenous H-2 class I and class II molecules.

Example 2 Peripheral CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T Cells

CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ splenic T cell numbers were determined by immunostaining and flow cytometry analysis as illustrated in FIG. 2 a.

CD4⁺ T cells represented 13-14% of the splenocyte population in both HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice and HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class II-KO mice. In contrast, only 2-3% of the cells were CD4⁺ in H-2 class II-KO mice (data not shown), in agreement with the initial report on mice lacking MHC class II molecules (Cosgrove, D. et al., Cell 66, 1051-1066 (1991)). As expected, expression of transgenic HLA-A2.1 molecules led to an increase in the size of the peripheral CD8⁺ T cell population, which reached 2-3% of the total splenocytes in both HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice and HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice, compared to 0.6-1% in the β2 microglobulin (β2m)-KO MHC class I-deficient mice (Pascolo, S. et al., J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997)).

The results presented in Examples 1 and 2 show that:

-   -   (1) In the HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ° mouse, the expression of         HLA-A2 molecules, the absence of expression of H2-K^(b)         molecules, the number of CD8⁺ peripheral T-lymphocytes, and the         diversity of the CD8⁺ T repertoire are generally comparable to         the HLA-A2⁺ β2m° mouse;     -   (2) In the HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse, the expression of         HLA-DR1 molecules, the absence of expression of H2-IA^(b)         molecules, the number of CD4⁺ T-lymphocytes, and the diversity         of the CD4⁺ repertoire are generally comparable to the         HLA-DR1⁺IAβ° mouse; and     -   (3) The HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse has all the         characteristic advantages found in HLA-A2⁺ β2m° mice, and the         HLA-DR1⁺IA β° mice.

Example 3 TCR BV Segment Usage

As the presence of a single MHC class I and single MHC class II molecule could diminish the size and diversity of the TCR repertoire, the expression of the various BV families and the CDR3 length diversity was studied as previously described (Cochet, M. et al., Eur J Immunol 22, 2639-2647 (1992)) by the RT-PCR-based immunoscope technique, on purified splenic CD4⁺ or CD8⁺ T cells. Peaks of significant magnitude with a Gaussian-like distribution were observed for most BV families (15 out of the 20 analyzed) in both CD8⁺ (FIG. 2 b) and CD4⁺ (FIG. 2 c) populations of T cells. Such profiles observed on peripheral T lymphocytes are typical of functionally rearranged BV segments with a 3 nucleotide length variation of the CDR3 subregions from one peak to the next (Cochet, M. et al., Eur J Immunol 22, 2639-2647 (1992)).

Absence of expansion (or profoundly altered profile) as observed for BV 5.3 and 17 were expected since these two BV segments are pseudogenes in C57BL/6 mice (Wade, T., Bill, J., Marrack, P. C., Palmer, E. & Kappler, J. W., J Immunol 141, 2165-2167 (1988)); Chou, H. S. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84, 1992-1996 (1987). However, the altered profiles observed for BV 5.1, 5.2 and 11 segments were due to a small subpopulation of corresponding BV-expressing T cells (they represent lower than 5% in C57BL/6 mice, and around 2% in HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO mice) (data not shown). Other than these instances, both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice display, respectively, a pattern of TCR BV chain usage and CDR3 diversity, which is similar to that of non-transgenic C57BL/6 mice.

Example 4 Functional Characterization

HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mice immunized with Ag HBs (hepatitis B envelope protein) were analyzed. FIG. 5 shows the specific humoral response, as indicated by the production of HBs S2 antibodies. FIG. 6 shows the specific DR1-restricted CD4⁺ T proliferation response of HBs₃₄₈₋₃₅₇. And FIG. 7 shows the specific HLA-A2-restricted CD8⁺ cytolytic T response of the HBs₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ or HBs₃₃₅₋₃₄₃.

These results show that the HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse allows for simultaneous analysis of the specific humoral response, of the Ag-specific HLA-DR1-restricted response of CD4⁺ T helper cells, and of the cytolitic response of Ag-specific HLA-A2-restricted CD8⁺ T cells in an immunized individual.

Additional data obtained from these mice is provided in the following Tables 1-3.

TABLE 1 Proliferative responses of T CD4+ against HBV virus   envelope HLA-DR1 epitopes from HLA-A2 + DR1 + H-2  CI-CII- transgenic mice injected with pcmv S2-S Responder/ Stimulation position Amino Acid sequence tested mice index 109-134 MQWNSTTFHQTLQDPRVRGLYFPAGG (12/12) 3-4 200-214 TSLNFLGGTTVCLGQ  (6/12) 3-4 16/31 QAGFFLLTRILTIPQS (12/12) 3-6 337/357 SLLVPFVQWFVGLSPTVWLSV  (5/12) 4-5

TABLE 2 Cytolytic response to HLA-A2 + DR1 + H-2 CI- CII-transgenic mice injected with pcmv S2-S Amino Acid Responder/ Maximal position sequence tested mice lysis 348-357 GLSPTVWLS (12/12) 20-70% 335-343 WLSLLVPVF  (4/12) 30%

TABLE 3 Anti-PreS2 Antibody response anti of HLA- A2 + DR1 + H-2 CI-CII transgenic mice injected with pcmv S2-S Responder/ position Amino Acid sequence tested mice preS2 MQWNSTTFHQTLQDPRVRGLYFPAGG (9/12)

Example 5 Immune Response to HBsAg-DNA-Vaccine

To evaluate the immunological potential of HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, and to compare their humoral, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses to those of humans, mice were immunized with an HBsAg-DNA plasmid. This plasmid encodes two hepatitis B virus envelope proteins (preS2/S middle and S/small) that self-assemble in particles carrying hepatitis B surface antigen. The currently used vaccine against hepatitis B comprises these two proteins.

As illustrated in FIG. 3 a for a representative mouse, HBsAg-specific antibodies were first detected at day 12 after injection of the HBsAg-DNA-vaccine (FIG. 3 a, upper panel), and the titer of these antibodies increased up to day 24 (12 days after the second DNA immunization, data non shown). This early antibody response was specific for the preS2-B cell epitope (HBs₁₀₉₋₁₃₄) carried by the middle HBV envelope protein and for HBsAg particles, in agreement with a similar response reported in HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice (Michel, M. L. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 5307-5311 (1995)) and in HBsAg vaccinated humans (Moulia-Pelat, J. P. et al., Vaccine 12, 499-502 (1994)).

The CD8⁺ CTL response to HBsAg was examined to determine whether the CD8⁺ T cells in the periphery of the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mouse were functionally restricted by the transgenic human class I molecules. In HBV-infected HLA-A2.1⁺ humans, the immunodominant HLA-A2.1-restricted HBsAg-specific CTL response is directed at the HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ (Maini, M. K. et al., Gastroenterology 117, 1386-1396 (1999)) and at the HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ (Nayersina, R. et al., J Immunol 150, 4659-4671 (1993)) peptide (i.e., a multi-epitopic response is observed). In C57BL/6 mice, the H-2 K^(b)-restricted HBsAg-specific CTL response is directed at the HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈ peptide (Schirmbeck, R., Wild, J. & Reimann, J., Eur J Immunol 28, 4149-4161 (1998)). To evaluate whether the humanized mouse may respond as humans, splenic T cells were restimulated for 7 days, as described herein, with either relevant (HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, HLA-A2.1-restricted), or control (HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈, H-2 K^(b)-restricted; MAGE3₂₇₁₋₂₇₉, HLA-A2.1-restricted) peptide. FIG. 3 a (middle panel) shows that HBsAg-DNA-immunization elicited a strong HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇-specific CTL response, but no response to either HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈ or the MAGE-3₂₇₁₋₂₇₉ peptide.

To determine whether the CD4⁺ T cells in the periphery of this HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mouse may be functionally restricted by the transgenic human class II molecules, the CD4⁺ T cell response to the HBsAg protein was examined. In HBsAg-vaccinated or HBV-infected HLA-DR1⁺ humans, an immunodominant HLA-DR1-restricted HBsAg-specific CD4⁺ T cell response is directed at the HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ peptide (Mm, W. P. et al., Hum Immunol 46, 93-99 (1996)). In C57BL/6 mice, the H-2 IA^(b)-restricted HBsAg-specific CD4⁺ T cell response is directed at the HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈ peptide (Milich, D. R., Semin Liver Dis 11, 93-112 (1991)). To compare the humanized mouse with humans and wild-type mice, splenic T cells were restimulated in vitro with either relevant (HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅, HLA-DR1-restricted) or control (HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈, H-2 IA^(b)-restricted; HIV 1 Gag₂₆₃₋₂₇₈, HLA-DR1-restricted) peptides. FIG. 3 a (lower panel) shows a strong proliferative response directed against the HLA-DR1-restricted HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ peptide, while the H-2 IA-restricted peptide was not efficient at stimulating a response, as expected. Similarly, no response was induced by the HIV 1 Gag₂₆₃₋₂₇₈ peptide. Moreover, an additional in vitro recall with the HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ peptide increased several-fold the specific proliferative index (data not shown).

Having documented in a first HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mouse the development and the specificity of the HBsAg-specific antibody, proliferative and cytolytic T cell responses, 6 additional HBsAg-DNA-immunized and 6 naive control HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice were also tested individually for the same three responses. As illustrated in FIG. 3 b, the three reponses were simultaneously documented in the 6 immunized animals tested and not in control naive mice. Interestingly, 2 immunized mice were able to develop CTL responses against both HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ and HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ HLA-A2.1 restricted peptides (FIG. 3 b, middle panel).

Example 6 Protection Assays

The above examples document the induction of HBsAg-specific humoral, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, and show that they are directed at the same immunodominant epitopes as those of naturally-infected or HBsAg-vaccinated humans. This example tested whether these responses conferred protection to vaccinated animals. Since mice are not permissive to HBV, a HBsAg-recombinant vaccinia virus (rVV-HBsAg) was used for these experiments. Mice were immunized twice intramuscularly with 100 μg of HBsAg-DNA. Twelve days after the last immunization, mice were challenged intraperitoneally with 10⁷ PFU of rVV-HBsAg. Four days later, virus titers were determined according to published methods and recorded as rVV PFU/ovary (Buller, R. M. & Wallace, G. D., Lab Anim Sci 35, 473-476 (1985)).

The results are illustrated in FIG. 4. Naive animals that had not been immunized with HBsAg-DNA showed evidence of rVV-HBsAg replication after challenge. In contrast, the virus titers in mice immunized with HBsAg-DNA were more than 4 orders of magnitude lower. These results strongly suggest that vaccination with HBsAg-DNA induced protective HBsAg-specific immune responses that controlled the infection with rVV-HBsAg.

The specificity of the protection conferred by HBsAg-DNA-vaccination was documented by challenging HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice with another HBx-recombinant VV (encoding hepatitis B×protein). No reduction of rVV-HBx replication was observed in HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice compared to unimmunized controls.

Example 7 HLA-DR1-Restricted CD4⁺ T Cells are Critical for Antibody and CTL Responses and Protection Against Viral Infection

To evaluate whether HLA-DR1-restricted T helper lymphocytes contribute to antibody and CTL responses in the humanized mice, the immune response and the efficiency of viral infection were compared in single (HLA-A2.1) and double (HLA-A2.1/HLA-DR1) transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice. As shown in Table 4, a potent HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇-specific CTL response was observed in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, but not in HLA-A2.1-single transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice. Furthermore, anti-HBs antibodies could not be detected in HBsAg-DNA-vaccinated HLA-A2.1-single transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice. As a consequence, HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-single transgenic. H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice were not protected against rVV-HBsAg infection.

TABLE 4 Table 4 Antibody, cytolytic, and proliferative responses of HBsAg- DNA-immunized mice, and protection against rVV-HBsAg-challenge Prolifer- rVV-HBsAg Specific Lysis (%) ation (SI) Antibody PFU/ovary Mice 348-357 335-343 179-194 Titer (log10) A 1 0 0 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 2 0 0 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 3 0 0 0 10⁸ 4 0 0 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 5 0 0 0 10⁸ 6 0 0 0 1.5 · 10⁸ B 1 30 15 4.7 2000 10⁴ 2 14 0 3.9 3000 3 · 10³ 3 30 11 4 7500 4 · 10³ 4 5 0 2.5 6500 7.5 · 10³ 5 50 30 6.3 13000 7.5 · 10² 6 40 18 4 16000 5 · 10² 7 6 7 2.9 1500 2 · 10⁴ 8 5 5 3 2500 1.5 · 10⁴ 9 24 36 4.5 3000 <10² 10 23 14 5 15000 5 · 10³ C 1 0 0 1 0 10⁸ 2 0 0 1 0 2 · 10⁸ 3 0 0 1 0 1.5 · 10⁸ 4 0 0 1 0 10⁸ 5 0 0 1 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 6 0 0 1 0 10⁸

-   -   Naive HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double transgenic H-2 class I-/class         II-KO mice (A 1-6), HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double         transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice (B1-10) and         HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-single transgenic H-2 class         I-/class II-KO mice (C1-6) were challenged intraperitoneally         with 10⁷ PFU of rVV-HBsAg. Four days later, PFU per ovary,         cytolytic and proliferative splenic T cell responses and serum         antibody titers were assessed individually using either         HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, (immunodominant) or HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ (subdominant),         HLA-A2.1-restricted peptides-loaded RMAS-HHD target cells (E/T         ratio 30/1).for cytolytic assays, HBsAg₁₇₉₋₁₉₄         HLA-DR1-restricted peptide for proliferation assays and         preS2₁₀₉₋₁₃₄ peptide for the determination of antibody (IgG)         titers.

The entire contents of all references, patents and published patent applications cited throughout this application are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. 

1. A transgenic mouse comprising: a) a disrupted H2 class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; and c) a functional HLA class I or class II transgene.
 2. A transgenic mouse comprising: a) a disrupted H2 class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; c) a functional HLA class I transgene; and d) a functional HLA class II transgene.
 3. The transgenic mouse according to claim 2, wherein the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene.
 4. The transgenic mouse according to claim 3, wherein the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.
 5. A transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene.
 6. The transgenic mouse according to claim 5, having the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°.
 7. The transgenic mouse according to claim 6, wherein the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.
 8. A method of simultaneously identifying the presence of one or more epitopes in a candidate antigen or group of antigens, wherein the epitope elicits a specific humoral response, a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response, and/or a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response, the method comprising: a) administering the candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to the mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; b) assaying for a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen; c) assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen; and d) assaying for a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen; wherein, observation of a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a humoral response in the antigen; observation of a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the antigen; and observation of a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the antigen.
 9. The method of claim 8, further comprising assaying for a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen and assaying for a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigen; wherein observation of a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen; and observation of a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigen.
 10. A method of identifying the presence of an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope in a candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens, the method comprising: a) administering the candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to the mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; and b) assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the mouse to the antigen; wherein, observation of a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the antigen.
 11. An isolated antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope identified by the method of claim
 10. 12. The isolated antigen of claim 11, wherein the antigen further comprises an epitope which elicits a humoral response and/or an epitope which elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response.
 13. The isolated antigen of claim 11, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polypeptide.
 14. The isolated antigen of claim 11, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polynucleotide.
 15. The isolated antigen of claim 14, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises, DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA.
 16. A method of identifying the presence of an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope in a candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens, the method comprising: a) administering the candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to the mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; and b) assaying for an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to the antigen or group of antigens; wherein, observation of an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to the antigen or group of antigens identifies an epitope which elicits a an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the antigen group of antigens.
 17. An isolated antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope identified by the method of claim
 16. 18. The isolated antigen of claim 17, wherein the antigen further comprises an epitope which elicits a humoral response and/or an epitope which elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response.
 19. The isolated antigen of claim 17, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises a polypeptide.
 20. The isolated antigen of claim 17, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises a polynucleotide.
 21. The isolated antigen of claim 20, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises, DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA.
 22. A method of comparing the efficiency of T-helper cell response induced by two or more vaccines, the method comprising: a) administering a first candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; b) administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; c) administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by each additional candidate vaccine to be compared; and d) determining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a T-helper cell response by comparing the T-helper cell responses to each of the vaccines to be compared with each other.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the T-helper cell response is an HLA-DR1 restricted response.
 24. A method of comparing the efficiency of T cytotoxic cell response induced by two or more vaccines, the method comprising: a) administering a first candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; b) administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; c) administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by each additional candidate vaccine to be compared; and d) determining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a T cytotoxic cell response by comparing the T cytotoxic cell responses to each of the vaccines to be compared with each other.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the T cytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.
 26. A method of simultaneously comparing the efficiency of T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced by two or more vaccines, the method comprising: a) administering a first candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; b) administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; c) administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by each additional candidate vaccine to be compared; and d) determining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response by comparing the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response to each of the vaccines to be compared with each other.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the T-helper cell response is an HLA-DR1 restricted response, and wherein the T cytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.
 28. A method of simultaneously determining the humoral response, the T-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cell response of a mouse following its immunization with an antigen or a vaccine comprising one or more antigens, the method comprising: a) administering the antigen or the vaccine comprising one or more antigens to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; b) assaying for a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens; c) assaying for a T-helper cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens; and d) assaying for a T cytotoxic cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the T-helper cell response is a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response.
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the T cytotoxic cell response is a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response.
 31. A method of optimizing two or more candidate vaccine compositions for administration to a human, based on preselected criteria, the method comprising: simultaneously determining the humoral response, the T-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cell response of a mouse following its immunization with the two or more candidate vaccine compositions, according to claim 28; and selecting an optimized vaccine by applying preselected criteria to the results.
 32. The method according to claim 31, wherein the two or more candidate vaccines differ only in the ratio of antigen to adjuvant present in the vaccine.
 33. The method according to claim 31, wherein the two or more candidate vaccines differ only in the type of adjuvant present in the vaccine.
 34. A method of determining whether a vaccine poses a risk of induction of an autoimmune disease when administered to a human, the method comprising: a) administering the vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; and b) assaying for an autoimmune response in the mouse; wherein, observation of an autoimmune response in the mouse indicates that the vaccine poses a risk of induction of an autoimmune disease when administered to a human.
 35. An isolated transgenic mouse cell comprising: a) a disrupted H2 class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; and c) a functional HLA class I or class II transgene.
 36. An isolated transgenic mouse cell comprising: a) a disrupted H2 class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; c) a functional HLA class I transgene; and d) a functional HLA class II transgene.
 37. The transgenic mouse cell according to claim 36, wherein the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene.
 38. The transgenic mouse cell according to claim 37, wherein the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.
 39. An isolated transgenic mouse cell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse cell comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene.
 40. The transgenic mouse cell according to claim 39, having the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°.
 41. The transgenic mouse cell according to claim 40, wherein the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing. 